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开放科学(资源服务)标志码(OSID):
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交流指互动双方从特定目的出发,围绕特定对象展开语言描述,从而对对象命名、分类和选择,进而操作和处置;该过程中双方分别扮演了语言描述指导者和任务操作执行者的角色,语言发出者有责任指导同伴,语言接受者参照指导执行任务操作[1-2]. 交流的典型特征表现为人际互动性、语言媒介性、共同目标导向性、合作互惠性、集体和个人责任共存性[3]. 交流互动一方面在交流者间传递了特定的思想内容(语义功能),另一方面又合作解决了特定的现实问题(语用功能).
认知风格是个人首选或偏爱使用的信息加工方式,Armstrong等[4]强调,认知风格差异表现为信息加工、脑加工机制、过程等方面的认知偏好差异;认知风格影响学习者的学习特点以及解决问题的能力;代表性的如场独立性和场依存性认知风格间的差异,即对外部环境“场”的依赖程度不同,场独立性个体的心理分化水平较高,在感知、记忆、思维等领域的信息加工过程中,主要以内在标准为参照,场依存性个体反之. 在学习认知上,场独立性学习者表现出独立、分析、推理等特征,而场依存性学习者表现出群体参照、整体性等特征[5-6]. 学习情境经常伴随着问题解决过程,场认知风格的调节可能导致不同的自我激励水平,影响学习者知识的建构、知识的具体化和可视化、知识的解释论证等[7]. 简言之,认知风格既和一个人解决问题的能力和学习准备性有关,又和一个人在交流中的人际互动特点有关.
语言在交流过程中的核心媒介特征使其成为交流认知研究领域中的焦点之一,围绕交流语言认知形成了不同视角下的理论解释[8]. 首先,从交流语言的形式看,在交流互动过程中双方会形成对于交流对象的特定语言解释,即参照惯例,参照惯例体现了双方的共同约定性、共同期望性、共同理解性等特征[9-10]. 参照惯例以双方共享的形式沟通信息,指导彼此的共同注意并执行共同期望和假设,从而最小化彼此交流的认知努力,集中交流者的认知资源于特定交流活动[11-12]. 其次,从交流语言内容的特征看,交流中双方为实现彼此认知和行为的协调,互动中需要建构发展彼此共同的交流基础(共同知识、共同信念、共同意图等),相应地将不断调整彼此的语言交流行为,这被称为“听者设计”[13-14]. 语言参照惯例的形成过程,是听者设计过程在语言互动中的典型表现. 再次,从交流语言的信息量看,一种观点认为参照惯例是对交流对象的精细描述,包含了超出交流需要的“赘余”信息[15-16];另一种观点认为,参照惯例的形成体现了意识和无意识推理的双加工特征,表现为对象的精简表述[17-18]. 其中一致的是,参照惯例不是交流对象精确无误的语言表达. 最后,从交流语言的功能看,语言交流过程代表了双方特定观点采择和互换的过程. 在这一意义上,语言交流是为了交换信息、促使彼此共同交流基础的形成和扩大[19-21]. 综合而言,交流语言认知探讨的共识在于:交流语言是交流互动认知的重要方面;交流语言的发生和变化过程代表了交流者间认知“冲突/协调”的特点;交流语言是交流的重要而非唯一媒介(如交流情境特征、交流者间的表情互动、对象的呈现特征等是交流中的非语言信息),导致语言和非语言信息间错综复杂的相互作用关系. 概言之,交流互动认知显著不同于个人认知,语言交流过程也显著不同于个人内在的自我言语过程,交流语言互动认知过程相对更为复杂和多样,对交流语言内容影响因素的研究具有理论和现实意义.
以往对于交流语言认知影响因素的探讨,主要关注了非语言媒介或信息的影响性. 交流中以语言为媒介的认知调整过程,属于意识性和策略性调整过程,而非语言信息对交流认知和行为的影响属于非意识性和非策略性调整过程,交流互动中两者间相互影响[1, 22-24]. De Ruiter等[18]强调了语言和非语言信息的权衡假设:交流中两者始终相伴发生,当非语言信息利用程度高时,交流者更少依赖语言信息,表现为语言信息的相对减少和不准确性. 概括而言,交流中的非语言信息典型如情境特征、表情互动、对象呈现特征等. 从情境特征看,交流被试在与真人的面对面互动中,表现出敏感性地捕获了同伴即时发生的一些非语言细微行为[25-26];交流语言信息内容表现出交流情境的限制性,语言参照惯例的稳定性并不代表交流者认知理解的准确性[11, 27]. 从表情互动看,交流者间的手势[13, 28-29]、注视[30-32]等互动沟通过程均显著影响到语言表达的速度、简洁性、流畅性等特征. 从对象呈现特征看,对象感知共享时交流语言表现出简单性特点,但由此而引发的语言简化直接导致交流双方互动协调水平的降低,协调过程也相应变长[33-34].
然而以往研究相对忽略了交流者自身特征对交流语言的影响作用,如认知风格. Rahmani[35]指出场独立性学生表现出独立学习特征,场依存性学生在集体学习氛围下可以有效率地学习. 场认知风格间的差异反映了个体独立解决问题的能力差异、学习风格差异、学习情境的影响差异等,但是,这并不能直接推理交流合作学习中何种场认知风格学习者更具有优势. 具体而言,场依存性学习者倾向于参照外部信息建构知识,但是难以集中关注知识内容中的重大信息,尤其是存在干扰信息(分心线索)的学习情境下,Rahmani[35]在研究中发现,学生场独立性越强,学习策略运用的灵活性和频次更显著,知识内容理解越好,但是教师介绍的学习策略(具体为语言阅读策略)越多对于场依存性学习者并不总是有利的,只有向其介绍适合自身的策略时,学习效率才显著提高;Masita[36]认为场独立性和依存性的学习能力、语言能力和问题解决能力等方面的差异,不适合于从简单的学习或问题的情境来做出全或无的划分,其中“自主性”是关键因素之一;Nosratinia等[37]强调指出场独立性学习者由于学习自主性强,学习过程中能够主动尝试和选择适合自己的学习策略,学习中的批判性特点显著;Myartawan等[38]研究了大学生自主性与英语语言能力间的关联,发现学生自主性越高,英语语言能力越好;Shangarffam等[39]研究了英语伊朗学生的学习自主性水平和第一、第二语言写作水平之间的关系,证实自主性和英语、波斯语的写作水平均存在显著的关联性;Wong等[40]发现语言能力强的学生更爱好社会人际交往,这是场独立性认知风格及其活跃人格特征的表现,语言能力弱的学生在学习中显著表现出权威导向,在传统讲授课堂上表现得很好.
可见,场独立性学习者学习自主性高、语言能力强,学习过程中对于知识的选择和鉴别能力更强,但这也并不排斥场独立性学习者在人际互动中的活跃性和外倾性,即场独立性不代表人际孤独性;同样场依存性的学习者自主性低、语言能力相对弱,更偏好集体学习氛围,在权威指导(如教师)存在的情境下,其学习过程中的接受效率很好,但是在存在干扰和歧义的学习情境下,由于独立性的不足,其对于知识的甄别能力又相对不足,可以说,场依存性学习者学习监控能力相对不足. Hostetter等[41]证实人际活跃性和外倾性对于交流活动的合群性和交流语言的表达性具有积极的影响,实验中让被试向听者一方描绘和解释名词内涵,听者对该名词做出猜测,实验条件分彼此可视和不可视2种,结果发现外倾性被试在2种条件下都表现出积极使用手势等交流手段辅助语言表达,即交流积极性更高——语言表达更快、手势更多;O'Carroll[27]等进一步研究指出内倾者和外倾者的交流差异不仅体现于语言发出或表达过程,也表现于语言理解过程,外倾者语言表达的同时更为关心听者的回应性;同样在语言理解方面内倾者对于交流中非语言信息的解码能力也相对不足,外倾性与非言语信息解码的精确性积极相关.
归纳而言,一方面,交流语言认知是一个复杂的过程,受到多种因素的综合影响,这种影响也包括了交流者自身的认知特征,如认知风格,这是被以往交流语言认知研究忽略的;另一方面,认知风格对于个体语言能力和学习能力的影响是明确存在的,但现实交流学习情境相对具有更高的复杂性和更多的人际互动性,尤其是如学生间的讨论性合作学习,不存在知识权威(如教师)的针对性直接指导,学习过程是问题解决过程和知识发现过程,在这种情境下认知风格对于交流语言认知过程的影响如何,以往研究没有具体探查. 在以往研究的基础上,本研究拟采用交流范式,通过学习任务,记录并分析交流学习语言,探查认知风格对交流学习语言内容的影响特点.
The Influence of Cognitive Style on Language Content of Communicative Learning
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摘要: 研究设立3种认知风格学习条件,采用交流范式,通过交流学习任务,记录分析交流语言内容,探查认知风格对交流学习语言内容的影响. 结果发现:①场依存性学习者交流语言内容更多;场独立性和场依存性条件下语言内容信息量均呈现“少—多—少”的变化特征,但场独立性条件下转折变化的速率更快,中间组条件在交流全程语言内容相对波动性较小. ②场依存性学习者语言中的无关信息更多,并且经历了“少—多—少”的变化;交流过程中场独立性和中间组条件下交流语言中的无关信息,随着学习程度的变化而逐渐减少. 结果证实,从交流语言分析,场独立性组的交流学习水平和交流语言认知协调水平优于场依存性组.Abstract: This study set up learning conditions of three cognitive styles to explore the influence of cognitive style on language content of communicative learning by adopting communication paradigm, recording and analyzing the communicative language content as well as communicating learning task. The results showed that the communicative language content of the field-dependent learner was more, the amount of language information was characterized by "less-more-less" changes under both conditions of field independence and field dependence, but the rate of change under field independence condition was faster, and the language of the middle group had less volatility in the whole process of communication; and that the irrelevant information was more in the communication language of field dependent learners, and experienced a "less-more-less" change, and in the process of communication, the irrelevant information in the communication language under the condition of field independence and middle group decreased with the change of learning level. The above results suggested that from the perspective of communicative language, the levels of communicative learning and communicative language cognitive coordination of the field independent group were better than those of the field dependent group.
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Key words:
- cognitive style /
- communicative learning /
- language .
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表 1 实验材料
样例 维度1 维度2 维度3 维度4 生物功能 ① 1 1 0 有 吸水,不产电 ② 1 1 0 无 吸水,不产电 ③ 1 1 1 有 吸水,产电 ④ 1 1 1 无 吸水,产电 ⑤ 1 0 1 有 不吸水,不产电 ⑥ 1 0 1 无 不吸水,不产电 ⑦ 0 1 1 有 不吸水,不产电 ⑧ 0 1 1 无 不吸水,不产电 表 2 交流语言内容
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9 b10 场独立性组(n=32) M 2.34 2.91 2.80 2.86 2.68 2.54 2.33 2.31 2.28 2.05 SD 0.51 0.65 0.71 0.68 0.95 0.80 0.94 0.86 0.93 0.94 中间组(n=32) M 2.14 2.41 2.23 2.24 2.14 2.22 2.00 1.84 1.82 1.78 SD 0.33 0.78 0.84 0.86 0.74 0.79 0.76 0.76 0.69 0.72 场依存性组(n=32) M 2.24 3.05 3.20 2.99 3.06 3.12 3.03 2.77 2.66 2.37 SD 0.74 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.44 0.47 0.75 0.78 0.83 0.70 表 3 交流语言中无关维度
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9 b10 场独立性组(n=32) M 0.59 0.66 0.66 0.57 0.46 0.47 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.34 SD 0.28 0.27 0.29 0.32 0.37 0.29 0.33 0.35 0.33 0.34 中间组(n=32) M 0.67 0.61 0.53 0.55 0.45 0.46 0.33 0.30 0.30 0.28 SD 0.20 0.33 0.39 0.39 0.33 0.33 0.37 0.40 0.38 0.39 场依存性组(n=32) M 0.66 0.91 0.94 0.87 0.85 0.77 0.65 0.59 0.61 0.53 SD 0.20 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.19 0.28 0.36 0.37 0.41 0.36 -
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